Clarified butter Clarified butter is butter with almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost-pure butterfat. Clarified butter is made by heating b

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directly from dairy farmers, skimmed the cream themselves, and made butter with it. It is rare in Europe as well.[12]
Several "spreadable" butters have been developed; these remain softer at colder temperatures and are therefore easier to use directly out of refrigeration. Some modify the makeup of the butter's fat through chemical manipulation of the finished product, some through manipulation of the cattle's feed, and some by incorporating vegetable oils into the butter. "Whipped" butter, another product designed to be more spreadable, is aerated via the incorporation of nitrogen gas—normal air is not used, because doing so would encourage oxidation and rancidity.
All categories of butter are sold in both salted and unsalted forms. Either granular salt or a strong brine are added to salted butter during processing. In addition to enhanced flavor, the addition of salt acts as a preservative.
The amount of butterfat in the finished product is a vital aspect of production. In the United States, products sold as "butter" are required to contain a minimum of 80% butterfat; in practice, most American butters contain only slightly more than that, averaging around 81% butterfat. European butters generally have a higher ratio, which may extend up to 85%.


Clarified butter
Clarified butter is butter with almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost-pure butterfat. Clarified butter is made by heating butter to its melting point and then allowing it to cool; after settling, the remaining components separate by density. At the top, whey proteins form a skin which is removed, and the resulting butterfat is then poured off from the mixture of water and casein proteins that settle to the bottom.[13]
Ghee is clarified butter which is brought to higher temperatures of around 120 °C (250 °F) once the water had evaporated, allowing the milk solids to brown. This process flavors the ghee, and also produces antioxidants which help protect it longer from rancidity. Because of this, ghee can keep for six to eight months under normal conditions.[13]
Cream may be skimmed from whey instead of milk, as a byproduct of cheese-making. Whey butter may be made from whey cream. Whey cream and butter have a lower fat content and taste more salty, tangy and "cheesy".[14] They are also cheaper than "sweet" cream and butter.
European butters[edit]
There are several butters produced in Europe with Protected geographical indications; these include:
Beurre d'Ardenne, from Belgium
Beurre d'Isigny, from France
Beurre Charentes-Poitou (Which also includes: Beurre des Charentes and Beurre des Deux-Sèvres under the same classification), from France
Beurre Rose, from Luxembourg
Mantequilla de Soria, from Spain
Mantega de l'Alt Urgell i la Cerdanya, from Spain
History[edit]

A chamber of commerce is not a governmental body or institution, and has no direct role in the writing and passage of laws and regulations that affect businesses. It may however, act as a lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses. Contents [hide] 1 Characteristics 2 Chamber models 2.1 Local and regional chambers

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n some circles as a board of trade) is a form of business network, e.g., a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community. Local businesses are members, and they elect a board of directors or executive council to set policy for the chamber. The board or council then hires a President, CEO or Executive Director, plus staffing appropriate to size, to run the organization.
The first chamber of commerce was founded in 1599 in Marseille, France.[1][2][3][4] It would be followed 65 years later by another official chamber of commerce, probably in Brugge, then part of the Spanish Netherlands.[5]
The world's oldest English-speaking chamber of commerce is that of New York City, which was established in 1768.[6] The oldest known existing chamber in the English-speaking world with continuous records is the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce,[7] which was founded in 1783. However, Hull Chamber of Commerce[8] is the UK's oldest, followed by Leeds and Belfast, Northern Ireland.[citation needed]
A chamber of commerce is not a governmental body or institution, and has no direct role in the writing and passage of laws and regulations that affect businesses. It may however, act as a lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses.
Contents  [hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Chamber models
2.1 Local and regional chambers
2.2 State chambers
2.3 Compulsory/public law chambers
2.4 Continental/private law chambers
2.5 Multilateral chambers
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Characteristics[edit]

Membership in an individual chamber in an area can range from a few dozen to well over 300,000 (as is the case with the Paris Chamber of Commerce and Industry). Some chamber organizations in China report even larger membership numbers. Chambers of commerce can range in scope from individual neighborhoods within a city or town up to an international chamber of commerce.[9]
In the United States, chambers do not operate in the same manner as the Better Business Bureau in that, while the BBB has the authority to bind its members under a formal operations doctrine (and, thus, can remove them if complaints arise regarding their services), the local chamber membership is either voluntary or required by law. In addition, Chambers represent the interests of businesses, while the BBB represents both the interests of businesses and the general public.[citation needed] Some Chambers are partially funded by local government, others are non-profit, and some are a combination of the two. Chambers of commerce also can inclu

Ducal Palace in Modena, built in 1634 by Francesco I. d’Este Austria-Este and the House of Habsburg[edit]

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n into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Ercole was compensated in 1801 with the small principality of Breisgau in southwestern Germany, whose previous rulers, the Habsburgs, ceded it to him in anticipation of its eventual return to the Habsburgs, since Ercole's daughter Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este was married to a cadet Habsburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este. Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau passed to his daughter and her husband, who then (1806) lost it during the Napoleonic reorganization of the western territories of the defunct Holy Roman Empire to the enlarged and elevated Grand Duchy of Baden.

Castello Estense in Ferrara



Ducal Palace in Modena, built in 1634 by Francesco I. d’Este

Austria-Este and the House of Habsburg[edit]

Main article: Austria-Este
In 1814, when French rule in Italy ended (but after the death of Duke Ercole), Modena was returned to his daughter Mary Beatrice and her son, Archduke Francis of Austria-Este. The family thus ruled the duchy of Modena and Reggio again from 1814 to 1859, using the names Asburgo-Este (Habsburg-Este) and Austria-Este. In 1859 the duchy lost its independence to the new united Italy, and Francis V, Duke of Modena, was deposed.


Ercole III was the last Este duke of Modena and Reggio.
The family of Austria-Este became extinct in the male line with the death of Francis V in 1875. His blood-heiress was his niece, Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria-Este (d. 1919); she and her husband, Prince Louis of Bavaria, later became Queen and KChamber of commerce
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Chamber of Commerce)
This article is about trade organisations globally. For the American business lobbying organization, see United States Chamber of Commerce.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)


Former Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York
A chamber of commerce (also referred to i

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